It has been shown over the last 10 years that campaigning for the conservation of the environment within the Islamic faith is productive, and specifically that using the Islamic education system to address the public of the EMR on important issues such as water conservation has a beneficial effect in raising public awareness. Hamdan et al. (1997, 241) concluded that "there is a desperate need for Islamic environmentalism in our finite world." Raising awareness using Islamic concepts of water conservation is feasible for the following reasons:
• Islam has a strong influence in the EMR;
• Water conservation and protection are stressed in Islamic teachings; and
• Islamic communication channels are very effective in raising public awareness.
The influence of Islam
The use of Islamic concepts to promote human well-being in all aspects of life is common throughout the region. For example, leading physicians, scientists, jurists, and religious scholars from the twenty-three countries of the EMR, meeting in Amman in 1996, declared the importance of Islamic behaviour for promoting good health (WHO 1996a, b, c). This important meeting realized the importance of looking at health as one element of life that cannot be achieved except in conjunction with other basic elements such as freedom, security, justice, water, and food. The meeting also focused on the effect of lifestyle and individual behaviour on health. Islam promotes behaviours that protect health and discourages habits that have a detrimental effect on it. The declaration identified sixty lifestyles where Islamic teachings offer guidance on healthy and harmful behaviours. Water conservation and protection were among the areas of concern.
Water conservation and protection in Islamic teachings
In Islam, the relationship between humans and water is part of daily social existence, which is based on the Muslim belief that everything on earth worships the same God. This worship is not merely ritual practice, because rituals are simply the symbolic human manifestation of submission to God. Rather, worship consists of actions that can be performed by all creatures that share the planet with the human race. Moreover, humans are responsible for the welfare and sustenance of the other citizens of this global environment. Water is the most precious and valuable resource of the physical environment for all living things. The link between life and water is explicitly stated in several verses of the Holy Quran, for example, "We made from water everything";2 "And Allah sends down rain from the skies, and gives therewith life to the earth after its death."3
Islam places strong emphasis on the achievement of perfect harmony between spiritual and physical purification. Physical purification cannot be achieved except by ablution and bathing (ghusl), which both require clean water. Therefore, purity and cleanliness of water receive a great deal of attention in both the Holy Quran and the sunnah, and Muslims are urged not to pollute water. "The Messenger of Allah forbade to urinate in stagnant water";4 "Let no one of you bathe in stagnant water to remove the state of ceremonial impurity";5 and "Guard against the three practices which invite people's curses: evacuating one's bowels near water sources, by the roadside and in the shade."6
Conservation is a fixed concept in Islamic teaching. It is a way of living that should be implemented through the Muslim's whole life: not as an ad hoc solution to shortages, nor in occasional situations (Madani 1989), but at all times, both good and bad. Islamic teachings tend to emphasize adherence to balance and the just satisfaction of individual and group desires and needs. Such teachings are based on various texts of the Holy Quran: "O children of Adam! Wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer: eat and drink: but waste not by excess for Allah loveth not wasters"7 or "Verily spendthrifts are brothers of the Evil Ones; and the Evil One is to his Lord (Himself) ungrateful."8 This is valid for all natural resources. However, Islam gives special attention to water conservation. According to the tradition of the Prophet of Islam, a Muslim is ordered to be economical with water even if he is taking his water from a fast-flowing river. "Allah's Apostle (peace be upon him) happened to pass by Sa'd as he was performing ablution. Whereupon he said: Sa'd what is this extravagance? He said: Can there be any idea of extravagance in ablution? Whereupon he (the Prophet) said: Yes, even if you are by the side of a flowing river."9
Other Islamic concepts and principles, such as human appointment and viceregency, co-operation and public participation, public consultation, and the relation between the public and the governing bodies are well documented in the Islamic teachings, and are useful tools for raising awareness and involving the public in water resource management and conservation. Water conservation is not the sole preserve of water agencies; everyone must participate in fulfilment of the Quranic injunction, "Help ye one another in righteousness and piety. But help ye not one another in sin and rancour."10The whole planet has been placed under human responsibility to be cared for and not misused. Furthermore, Muslims believe that God created the human race for a great reason, that it might act as His viceroy upon the earth. Our mastery of the earth is for its betterment and development and not for evil or misuse. "Behold thy Lord said to the angels: 'I will create a viceroy on earth.' They said 'Wilt Thou place therein one who will make mischief therein and shed blood? Whilst we celebrate Thy praises and glorify Thy holy (name)?' He said: 'I know that ye know not'."11
"Enjoining of good and forbidding evil" is an obligatory action (wajeb) that should be performed by all Muslims. It is an important tool not only for raising awareness, but also for urging good action and involvement and prohibiting bad and harmful behaviour, for the Prophet (pbuh) "commands . . . what is just and forbids them what is evil."12 The principle of "Neither harm nor harming"13 is another basis for declaring an official Islamic position toward water conservation issues. It can be interpreted from this hadith that all harmful acts are forbidden (haraam).
Typical Islamic behaviour and action are guided by the hadith, "I heard the messenger of Allah as saying: He who amongst you sees something abominable should modify it with the help of his hand; and if he has not strength enough to do it, then he should do it with his tongue; and if he has not strength enough to do it, (even) then he should (abhor it) from his heart and that is the least faith."14
